Associations between body composition, macronutrient intake, and physical fitness in adolescent swimmers
Keywords:
Adolescent swimmers, body composition, macronutrients, physical fitness, regression analysisAbstract
Background: Physical fitness plays a key role in the performance of adolescent swimmers. However, gaps remain in understanding how body composition and macronutrient intake jointly influence fitness when accounting for individual variability. Research Objectives: This study examines the correlation between macronutrients and body composition with physical fitness in adolescent swimming athletes from Bojonegoro. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 41 adolescent swimmers. Macronutrient intake was assessed using a Semi Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (SQ-FFQ), body composition via Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA), and physical fitness through the Multistage Fitness Test. Spearman correlation and multiple linear regression were used to evaluate associations, adjusting for age, sex, weight, and height. Findings/Results: Physical fitness was positively correlated with skeletal muscle mass and intake of carbohydrates, protein, and fat (p < 0.05), and negatively correlated with total body fat. Demographic variables (age, sex, height) explained 42.7% of physical fitness variability (adjusted R² = 0.427, p < 0.001). Including exercise activities, body composition, and nutrient variables increased R² to 0.597, but the full model was not statistically significant (adjusted R² = 0.404, p = 0.803). Conclusion: Body composition and macronutrient intake are associated with physical fitness, but demographic factors remain the strongest predictors. Individualized training and dietary strategies may support performance optimization in adolescent athletes. Future studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs are recommended to confirm and extend these findings.
Downloads
Author Biographies
Renaldy Carlos Gunawan, Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Satwika Arya Pratama, Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
References
Al Faruq, M. M., & Adiningsih, S. (2017). Pola Konsumsi Energi, Protein, Persen Lemak Tubuh dan Aerobic Endurance Atlet Renang Remaja. Media Gizi Indonesia, 10(2), 117–122. https://doi.org/10.20473/mgi.v10i2.117-122
Almárcegui, C. J., Huybrechts, I., Bruton, A. G., Llorente, Á. M., Agüero, A. G., Cabello, A. G., Moreno, L. A., Casajús, J. A., & Rodríguez, G. V. (2015). Validity of a Food-Frequency Questionnaire for Estimating Calcium Intake in Adolescent Swimmers. Nutricion Hospitalaria, 32(4), 1773–1779. https://doi.org/10.3305/nh.2015.32.4.9490
Cortesi, M., Gatta, G., Michielon, G., Di Michele, R., Bartolomei, S., & Scurati, R. (2020). Passive Drag in Young Swimmers: Effects of Body Composition, Morphology and Gliding Position. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), 7–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062002
Dhiman, C., & Chand Kapri, B. (2023). Optimizing Athletic Performance and Post- Exercise Recovery: The Significance of Carbohydrates and Nutrition. Montenegrin Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 12(2), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.26773/mjssm.230907
Domínguez, R., Sánchez-Oliver, A. J., Cuenca, E., Jodra, P., Fernandes da Silva, S., & Mata-Ordóñez, F. (2017). Nutritional Needs in the Professional Practice of Swimming: A Review. Journal of Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry, 21(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.20463/jenb.2017.1
Dopsaj, M., Zuoziene, I. J., Milić, R., Cherepov, E., Erlikh, V., Masiulis, N., Di Nino, A., & Vodičar, J. (2020). Body Composition in International Sprint Swimmers: Are There any Relations with Performance? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249464
Espada, M. C., Ferreira, C. C., Gamonales, J. M., Hernández-Beltrán, V., Massini, D. A., Macedo, A. G., Almeida, T. A. F., Castro, E. A., & Pessôa Filho, D. M. (2023). Body Composition Relationship to Performance, Cardiorespiratory Profile, and Tether Force in Youth Trained Swimmers. Life, 13(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/life13091806
Ferreira, F. A., Santos, C. C., Palmeira, A. L., Fernandes, R. J., & Costa, M. J. (2024). Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Systematic Review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(3), 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030158
Gonçalves, S., Vicente, F., & Pereira, P. (2025). Energy and Key Micronutrient Intake in Amateur Swimmers: a Pilot Study. Nutrients, 17(4), 664.. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17040664
Hwang, E., Portillo, B., Grose, K., Fujikawa, T., & Williams, K. W. (2023). Exercise-Induced Hypothalamic Neuroplasticity: Implications for Energy and Glucose Metabolism. Molecular Metabolism, 73(May), 101745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2023.101745
Kerksick, C. M., Arent, S., Schoenfeld, B. J., Stout, J. R., Campbell, B., Wilborn, C. D., Taylor, L., Kalman, D., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Kreider, R. B., Willoughby, D., Arciero, P. J., VanDusseldorp, T. A., Ormsbee, M. J., Wildman, R., Greenwood, M., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Aragon, A. A., & Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Nutrient Timing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4
Kim, J. H. (2019). Multicollinearity and Misleading Statistical Results. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 72(6), 558–569. https://doi.org/10.4097/kja.19087
Kitts, S., Stauffer, K., & Flink, T. (2025). Nutritional Preparation for an Ultra-Endurance Swimmer: A Case Report. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 8(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2025.103190
Kurnia, D. I., Kasmiyetti, K., Dwiyanti, D., & Al, E. (2020). Pengetahuan Pengaturan Makan Atlet dan Persen Lemak Tubuh Terhadap Kebugaran Jasmani Atlet. Sport and Nutrition Journal, 2(2), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.15294/spnj.v2i2.39001
Lakens, D. (2022). Sample Size Justification. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.33267
Larasati, M. D., & Yuliana, S. (2020). Asupan Makanan, Status Gizi dan Ketahanan Kardiorespirasi Atlet Renang. Jurnal Riset Gizi, 8(1), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.31983/jrg.v8i1.5763
Macuh, M., Levec, J., Kojić, N., & Knap, B. (2023). Dietary Intake, Body Composition and Performance of Professional Football Athletes in Slovenia. Nutrients, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010082
Martín-Rodríguez, A., Belinchón-deMiguel, P., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., Tornero-Aguilera, J., Martínez-Guardado, I., Villanueva-Tobaldo, C., & Clemente-Suárez, V. (2024). Advances in Understanding the Interplay Between Dietary Practices, Body Composition, and Sports Performance in Athletes. Nutrients, 16(4), 571. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16040571
Massini, D. A., Almeida, T. A. F., Vasconcelos, C. M. T., Macedo, A. G., Espada, M. A. C., Reis, J. F., Alves, F. J. B., Fernandes, R. J. P., & Pessôa Filho, D. M. (2021). Are Young Swimmers Short and Middle Distances Energy Cost Sex-Specific? Frontiers in Physiology, 12(December), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.796886
Miguel-Ortega, Á., Calleja-González, J., & Mielgo-Ayuso, J. (2024). Endurance In Long-Distance Swimming And The Use Of Nutritional Aids. Nutrients, 16(22), 3949. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16223949
Muharam, R. R. (2019). Hubungan antara Pola Makan dan Status Gizi dengan Tingkat Kebugaran Atlet Dayung. JOSSAE : Journal of Sport Science and Education, 4(1), 14-20. https://doi.org/10.26740/jossae.v4n1.p14-20
Murray, B., & Rosenbloom, C. (2018). Fundamentals of Glycogen Metabolism dor Coaches and Athletes. Nutrition Reviews, 76(4), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy001
Noakes, T. D. (2022). What is the Evidence that Dietary Macronutrient Composition Influences Exercise Performance? A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 14(4), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040862
Panuganti, K. K., Nguyen, M., & Kshirsagar, R. K. (2023). Obesity. In StatPearls. StatPearls. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30811954
Roelofs, E. J., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Trexler, E. T., & Hirsch, K. R. (2017). Seasonal Effects on Body Composition, Muscle Characteristics, and Performance of Collegiate Swimmers and Divers. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.12.26
Sagat, P., Štefan, L., Petrić, V., Štemberger, V., & Blažević, I. (2023). Normative Values of Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Croatian Children and Adolescents. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284410. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284410
Sakir, N. A. I., Hwang, S. Bin, Park, H. J., & Lee, B.-H. (2024). Associations between Food Consumption/Dietary Habits and the Risks of Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes, and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study in Jakarta, Indonesia. Nutrition Research and Practice, 18(1), 132. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2024.18.1.132
Sasmarianto, Henjilito, R., Zulrafli, Kamarudin, & Nazirun, N. (2021). Understanding the Needs of Nutrition Intake on Athletes. Journal Sport Area, 6(2), 244–253. https://doi.org/10.25299/sportarea.2021.vol6(2).6509
Senanayake, S. P., Dabare, P., Silva, A. R. N., Pushpika, S., & Maddumage, R. (2024). Validation Study to Assess the Concurrent Validity of the Beep Test as a Proxy for Cardiopulmonary Endurance, Using VO2 Max as the Criterion Standard. European Journal of Sport Sciences, 3(1), 38–42. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejsport.2024.3.1.131
Setiaputri, K. A., Rahfiludin, M. zen, Suroto, & Al, E. (2017). Hubungan Konsumsi Zat Gizi, Persentase Lemak Tubuh dan Aktivitas Fisik dengan Kebugaran Jasmani pada Atlel Renang. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyaraka, 5(3), 2356–3346. https://doi.org/10.14710/jkm.v5i3.17202
Sholihah, L., & Mayasari, N. R. (2024). Exploring Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, Nutritional Status, and Diet among Female Nutrition Students. Journal Sport Area, 9(3), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.25299/sportarea.2024.vol9(3).14899
Shook, R. P., Hand, G. A., Drenowatz, C., Hebert, J. R., Paluch, A. E., Blundell, J. E., Hill, J. O., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Church, T. S., & Blair, S. N. (2015). Low Levels of Physical Activity are Associated with Dysregulation of Energy Intake and Fat Mass Gain Over 1 Year. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 102(6), 1332–1338. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.115360
Swinarew, A. S., Stanula, A. J., Gabor, J., Raif, P., Paluch, J., Karpiński, J., Kubik, K., Okła, H., Ostrowski, A., Tkacz, E., Skoczyński, S., Waśkiewicz, Z., Rosemann, T., Nikolaidis, P. T., & Knechtle, B. (2020). The Influence of Chlorine in Indoor Swimming Pools on the Composition of Breathing Phase of Professional Swimmers. Respiratory Research, 21(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-020-01350-y
Zahra, S., & Muhlisin, M. (2020). Nutrisi bagi Atlet Remaja. Jurnal Terapan Ilmu Keolahragaan, 5(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.17509/jtikor.v5i1.25097
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2025 Renaldy Carlos Gunawan, Satwika Arya Pratama
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium. Copyrights of all materials published in Journal Sport Area are freely available without charge to users or / institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, search, or link to full-text articles in this journal without asking by giving appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. All of the remix, transform, or build upon the material must distribute the contributions under the same license as the original.
Accepted 2025-07-12
Published 2025-08-16
